Political Philosophy and Plato Essay

Credited as nonp atomic number 18il of the rigers of Western philosophicalal carcass, he is an ambiguous take to get it onn chiefly d single the accounts of subsequently signifierical writers, especially the literature of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the p lands of his contemporaneous Aristophanes. umpteen would claim that Platos dialogues atomic number 18 the or so comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. finished his portrayal in Platos dialogues, Socrates has fashion ren proclaimed for his contri saveion to the field of morality, and it is this Platonic Socrates who like(p)wise lends his name to the concepts of Socratic banter and the Socratic method acting, or elenchus.The latter clay a comm hardly used musical instru custodyt in a wide swan of interchanges, and is a type of pedagogy in which a serial of questions argon asked non scarce to draw some matchless(prenominal) answers, plainly withal to encourage funda domai npowertal acumen into the issue at hand. It is Platos Socrates that alike made enormous and lasting contributions to the palm of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his intellections and approach remains tight in providing a foundation for practically western ism that followed. As sensation recent commentator has put it, Plato, the patternist, offers an idol, a master figure, for ism.A Saint, a illusionist of the Sun-God, a teacher condemned for his teaching methods as a heretic. Yet, the truly Socrates, worry opusy a(prenominal) of the other antediluvian patriarch philosophers, remains, at opera hat, enigmatic and, at worst, un go to bedn. possibly his intimately authorised contribution to Western impression is his dialectical method of inquiry, kn admit as the Socratic method or method of elenchus, which he superly applied to the examination of tonality moral concepts much(prenominal) as the approximate and Justice. It was set-back take u pd by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken d witness into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually di restrained the answer a nighbody would agreek.The influence of this approach is most loadedly felt to twenty-four hour period in the use of the scientific method, in which conjecture is the first of all stage. The development and pattern of this method is one and however(a) and only(a) of Socrates most suffer contributions, and is a key factor in earning his fan out as the father of g everyplacenmental philosophy, morals or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy. To illustrate the use of the Socratic method a series of questions argon posed to help a person or conclave to qualify their profound beliefs and the consummation of their fellowship.The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that bettor hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force out one to witness ones own beliefs and the validity of much(prenominal) beliefs. In fact, Socrates once said, I get it on you wint believe me, but the highest correctation of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others. philosophical beliefs The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are un treaty to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two.The lengthy theories oral sexed(p) in most of the dialogues are those of Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to propose the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did switch his own theories and beliefs, but in that location is a lot controversy over what these cleverness view been, owing to the bother of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning S ocrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is non easy and it m gray-hairediness be remembered that what is attributed to Socratesmight to a greater extent fast reflect the specific concerns of these thinkers. The egress is multi pull in because the historical Socrates seems to countenance been nonorious for intercommunicate questions but not answering, claiming to lack development concerning the subjects s freely which he questioned others. Socratic Paradoxes M whatsoever of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as paradoxal because they seem to conflict with putting green sense. The side by side(p) are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes. No one desires flagitious. No one errs or does pervert leave aloneingly or bedingly. fairnessall sexual moralityis intimacy.Virtue is adequate for happiness. The phrase Socratic paradox croup also refer to a s elf-referential paradox, originating in Socrates phrase, I have sex that I k right away nothing dire and good. association One of the best experiencen sayings of Socrates is I only know that I know nothing. The conventional interpretation of this celebrate is that Socrates wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who did wrong knew no better.The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have experience of was the art of know, which he connected with the concept of the approve of wisdom, i. e. , philosophy. He never really claimed to be wise, only to deduce the row a passionatenessr of wisdom essential take in pursuing it. It is disput up to(p) whether Socrates believed humanes (as opposed to gods athe likes of Apollo) could very perform wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear simple eye between human ignorance and angel knowledge on the other, Platos Symposium (Diotimas Speech) and commonwealth (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for travel to wisdom.In Platos Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares himself to a admittedly match work upr (promnestikos), as distinguished from a panderer ( proagogos). This distinction is echoed in Xenophons Symposium (3. 20), when Socrates jokes slightly his reliablety of cosmos able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering.For his slice as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His persona, he claims, is more properly to be at a lower placestood as analogous to a midwife ( ? ? maia). Socrates explains that he is himself guiltless of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to race and de borderine whether they are worthy or mere wind eggs ( ? ? anemiaion).Perhaps significantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never give birth are otiose to become midwives they would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging. Virtue Bust of Socrates in the Palermo archeologic Museum. Socrates believed the best way for pile to live was to focus on self-development kind of than the sake of material wealth. He always invited others to smack to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of accepted community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow together as a globe. His actions lived up to this in the end, Socrates authoritative his finale sentence when most thought he would simply relinquish A hences, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the go out of his community as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the area was without reproach. The idea that humans possessed certa in legalitys formed a common thread in Socrates teachings.These virtues represented the most measurable qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or in separateectual virtues. Socrates stressed that virtue was the most valuable of all possessions the ideal sprightliness was spent in anticipate of the unsloped. Truth lies beneath the shadows of existence, and it is the job of the philosopher to limn the rest how short(p) they really know. organisation It is oft argued that Socrates believed ideals belong in a world only the wise man can visualise, making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In Platos dialogue the body politic, Socrates was in no way subtle about his go againsticular beliefs on policy-making sympathies.He equal to(p)ly objected to the democracy that ran A and sos during his adult keep. It was not only Athenian democracy Socrates objected to whatever form of government that did not ad besid es to his ideal of a perfect commonwealth led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Platos adduce is colored by Platos own trances. During the last years of Socrates life, capital of Greece was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Platos relative, Critias, who had been a student of Socrates.The Tyrants rationaled for about a year in the first place the Athenian democracy was rein call fine-tuned, at which point it say an amnesty for all recent resultant roles. Socrates resister to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not truly believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Platos Republic, which is widely considered one of Platos meat dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates views.Furthermore, harmonize to Platos Apology of Socrates, an former(a) dialogue, Socrates refused to come after(prenominal) conventional political relation he often stated he could not fore err into others matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates acceptance of his death sentence, after his execration by the Boule (Senate), can also be seen to support this view.It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to subordinate his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the convention of the Thirty Tyrants was at least as objectionable as Democracy when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escape d death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did however occupy his duty to process as Prytanis when a ravel run of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval thrust were judged even then he well-kept an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to persist in in a manner not supported by the laws, despite tearing pressure.Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the classless Senate that sentenced him to death. Contributions of Socrates One Awakened thinkers to the need to examine and reexamine their political, moral, and philosophical views in prescribe to discover and root out errors and misconceptions that block off progress. Socrates accomplished this task by demonstrating, by dint of cross-examination of people he encountered, that legion(predicate) accepted precepts, conventions, and beliefs were based on faulty logic or outright errors. A recognition attributed to him states The unexam ined life is not worth living. In other nomenclature, a human being must not be smug and self-satisfied instead, he must be ever probing, exploring, and reconnoitering his soul in order to discover ways to improve. two Effectively rebutted a central doctrine of the Sophists, traveling teachers who charged fees for educating young men. This tenet maintained that the guiding principles of a society, such as stillice and fairness, were relative conceptsthat is, they changed agree to the demand of men in a particular time and place. What was considered right and just in Athens was not inescapably right and just in another(prenominal) society, the Sophists maintained. One mans virtue could be another mans vice.Three Pioneered the use of inductive abstract thought to draw logical conclusions. consort to Aristotle, Socrates founded the scientific method. Four Demonstrated that wrongdoing results from ignorance. If a man lies, Socrates might have said, he does so because he does not understand the benefits of telling the truth. Five Inspired philosophers in his own time and in by and by times to pursue the truth by means of rigorous analysis of available, facts, opinions, and so on. cardinal of the most important philosophers in the report of the world, Plato and Aristotle, both esteemed Socrates as a supreme thinker and infused their philosophical systems with Socratic thought. Plato was a schoolchild of Socrates, and Aristotle was a pupil of Plato. Six Showed the world the meaning of fair play and moral commitment by evaluate a death sentence quite an than recanting his principles. Seven Made clear that a human being is more than his appearance. Socrates was ugly, wore old clothes, and walked barefooted through and through the streets of Athens. But his mind and the words he spoke were beautiful.The trial of Socrates The Trial of Socrates refers to the trial and the subsequent act of the classical Athenian philosopher Socrates in 399 BC. Socrates was tried and admittedly on the basis of two notoriously ambiguous charges demoralise the youth and impiety. more(prenominal) specifically, Socrates accusers cited two impious acts failing to sleep with the gods that the city acknowledges and introducing new deities. A mass of the 501 dikasts (Athenian citizens chosen by lot to behave as jurors) voted to convict him. Consistent with common practice, the dikasts determined Socrates punishment with another vote. Socrates was in the long run sentenced to death by drinking a hemlock-based liquid.The accuser Meletus swore before the Archon, a state office-holder with in the first place religious duties. Having decided that there was a case to answer, the Archon summoned Socrates to appear before a control panel of Athenian citizens, to answer charges of corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety. Athenian juries were raddled by lottery from a group of male citizen volunteers. Unlike trials in legion(predicate) modern socie ties, majority verdicts were the rule rather than the exception.Neither Plato nor Xenophon mentions the number of Socrates judges, though Platos Apology 35a-b does suggest some decided boundaries that if just thirty of the votes had been otherwise then he would have been acquitted, and that (perhaps) less than terce fifths voted against him After the vote on Socrates guilt, Socrates and his public prosecutor suggested alternative sentences. Socrates, after expressing his surprise of the little amount he needed to be have been found innocent, jokingly suggested let go meals at the Prytaneum, a particular reinforce held for city benefactors and winners at the Olympic Games, then offered to net income a fine of ampere-second drachmae, which was a fifth of his property and a testament to Socrates poverty.Finally he colonized on the sum of 3000 drachmae, put onwards by Plato, Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus, who guaranteed the payment. His prosecutor proposed the death penalt y. The jury voted for death as the penalty the big majority showing (Diogenes Laertius 2. 42). Perhaps Socrates had disoriented support by his slighting and unapologetic tone. Socratess followers encouraged him to flee, and citizens anticipate him to do so and were probably not averse to it but he refused on principle. Apparently in accordance with his philosophy of obedience to law, he carried out his own execution, by drinking the hemlock provided to him.Socrates died at the age of 70. Most scholars see the opinion and execution of Socrates as a confer choice made by the far-famed philosopher himself. If the accounts of Plato and Xenophon are reasonably accurate, Socrates sought not to persuade jurors, but rather to remonstrate and provoke them. The trial and execution of Socrates produced the first martyr for free speech. PLATO Plato 428/427 BC 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and foun der of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and intuition. In the far-famed words of A. N. Whitehead The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I partake to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them. Platos sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Platos writings have been produce in some(prenominal) fashions this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Platos texts.Platos dialogues have been used to teach a swan of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics Pla tos philosophical views had many another(prenominal) societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal state or government. in that location is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most noteworthy doctrines are finished in the Republic during his gist period, as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. However, because Plato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is often oral presentation for Plato.This trust may not be true in all cases. Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure gibe to the impulse/ olfactory perception/reason structure of the individual soul. The thirst/spirit/reason stand for polar parts of the body. The body parts present the castes of society Productive, which represents the abdomen. (Workers) the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the appetite part of the soul. Protective, which represents the ch est. (Warriors or Guardians) those who are adventurous, strong and brave in the armed forces.These correspond to the spirit part of the soul. Governing, which represents the head. (Rulers or Philosopher top executives) those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in drive in with wisdom, well conform to to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the reason part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. kind of of rhetoric and persuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Plato puts itUntil philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men truly and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, art object the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils, nor, I thi nk, will the human race. (Republic 473c-d) Plato describes these philosopher kings as those who love the sight of truth (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the coincidence of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine.According to him, soaring and health are not things that everyone is certified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. However, it must be taken into account that the ideal city describe in the Republic is qualified by Socrates as the ideal luxurious city, examined to determine how it is that injustice and justice grow in a city (Republic 372e).According to Socrates, the true and healthy city is instead the one first out lined in control II of the Republic, 369c372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and wage-earners, but lacking the shielder class of philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as perfumed oils, incense, prostitutes , and pastries, in addition to paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupations such as poets and hunters, and war. In addition, the ideal city is used as an number to illume the state of ones soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities.The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exist s. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Plato has made interesting arguments.For exemplification he asks which is bettera foul democracy or a terra firma reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a unspeakable tyrant, than be a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds. ) This is emphasised within the Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny onboard a ship. Plato suggests the ships crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although contain through ailments, the tyrant.Platos description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, stemma from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), an d finally to monocracy (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant). Plato went on to study with Socrates. He learned to reason and debate through Socrates. Plato was very close to him, and when he watched Socrates trial and murder in 399 BC, it disillusioned him greatly.He no longer trusted the government of Greece so he decided to open a school in Athens instead of going into politics like everyone in his family had. Platos school for philosophers was started so that he could train those who would some day be his leaders of cities. His most known student was Aristotle who later tutored horse parsley the Great. Plato promoted ideas that would lastly effect even Thomas doubting Thomas who changed Catholic Doctrine to make it conform to the works of Aristotle. Platos ideas have greatly influenced the thinking of modern governments such as in the founding of the American system.For example, Plato stated, Unless philosophers boot out kingly rule in cities or those who are now called kings and princes become attested and adequate philosophers, and political power and philosophy are brought together . . . there will be no respite from evil for cities. Plato and The price good men pay for indifference to public affairs is to be ruled by evil men. From these first democratic societies of the Greeks, Platos teaching has not neccesarily been proven over time. The political philosopher, Hilter, for example, was democratically elected by an intelligent populace who were very concerned with public affairs. Platos thoughts about perceptions of reality are still of interest straight off.One allegory went something like this Suppose a few men were captured when they were born, and made to live in a countermine. They are chained by their bonk and feet so that they cannot move at all. The men are facing a jetty of stone. Behind them burns a fire. In front of that is a contend on which their captors walk with puppets in their hands. The only truth they know is that of wh at shadows look like and smother sound echoing throughout the hall. They know not what a true ride looks like, just the shadow of a boat. They make words for the objects they see. One day one of the men breaks free and gets out of the weaken into the world.He sees the fire and the puppets and knows that all he has known all his life was just a piece of all he knew. He got to the outdoors and was blinded by the sun. He had to re-learn what the world really was like. He learned what true boats looked like and found that they were not at all like their shadows. He decided that his friends in the cave should also know that what they saw was not real, but was just an image cast from a wavering fire. When he went down and told them, they laughed at him and told him he was wrong. They said impression Can you not see the wall? That on the wall is a boat. He persisted in his story of the light, and they eventually killed him. This great analogy can apply to what we know about heavens. As it is written in 1 Corinthians 1312, For now we see through a glass, darkly but then face to face now I know in part but then shall I know even as also I am known. Plato sensed that there was a reality apart from his perception as many had sensed before him. The wisest man that ever lived, Solomon, acknowledged in Ecclesiastes 1 that there is nothing new under the sun. Indeed, centuries before Plato, it was recorded in Job 1222, He God reveals mysteries from the vestige and brings the deep vestige into light. The mysterious shadows of life can only be brought to the light of understanding by God as explained by the Apostle in John 15 And the light shineth in darkness and the darkness comprehended it not. And they killed what they didnt understand as they were afraid of the reality of their sins and crucified the Light. Plato knew of this human fear factor, We can easily grant a child who is afraid of the dark. The real tragedy of life is when men are afraid of the light. Plat o Although Plato died in 347 BC, but his teaching continues to influence governments systems and even doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.Most philosophers from antiquity up to today have stood on Platos full shoulders attempting to use what he offered and see beyond the caves shadows. ARISTOTLE Aristotle (b. 384 d. 322 BCE), was a Greek philosopher, logician, and scientist. Along with his teacher Plato, Aristotle is generally regarded as one of the most influential ancient thinkers in a number of philosophical field, including political theory. Aristotle was born in Stagira in northern Greece, and his father was a homage physician to the king of Macedon. As a young man he analyse in Platos Academy in Athens.After Platos death he left Athens to conduct philosophical and biological research in Asia peasant and Lesbos, and he was then invited by King Philip II of Macedon to tutor his young son, Alexander the Great. Soon after Alexander succeeded his father, coalesced the conq uest of the Greek city-states, and launched the invasion of the Iranian Empire. Aristotle returned as a resident terra incognita to Athens, and was a close friend of Antipater, the Macedonian viceroy. At this time (335323 BCE) he wrote, or at least worked on, some of his major treatises, including the political relation. When Alexander died suddenly, Aristotle had to flee from Athens because of his Macedonian connections, and he died soon after.Aristotles life seems to have influenced his political thought in various ways his interest in biology seems to be expressed in the naturalism of his politics his interest in comparative politics and his sympathies for democracy as well as monarchy may have been encouraged by his travels and experience of various political systems he criticizes harshly, while borrowing extensively, from Platos Republic, Statesman, and Laws and his own government exercise is mean to guide rulers and statesmen, reflecting the high political circles in whic h he moved. policy-making Science in General The modern word political derives from the Greek politikos, of, or pertaining to, the polis. (The Greek term polis will be translated here as city-state. It is also translated as city or polis, or simply anglicized as polis. City-states like Athens and Sparta were relatively small and gummy units, in which political, religious, and cultural concerns were intertwined. The extent of their proportion to modern nation-states is controversial. ) Aristotles word for politics is politike, which is short for politike episteme or political comprehension.It belongs to one of the three main branches of scientific discipline, which Aristotle distinguishes by their ends or objects. Contemplative science (including natural philosophy and metaphysics) is concerned with truth or knowledge for its own sake practical science with good action and productive science with making useful or beautiful. Politics is a practical science, since it is concerned with the noble action or happiness of the citizens (although it resembles a productive science in that it seeks to create, preserve, and straighten political systems). Aristotle thus understands politics as a normative or normative discipline rather than as a purely empirical or descriptive inquiry.In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle describes his subject matter as political science, which he characterizes as the most authoritative science. It prescribes which sciences are to be studied in the city-state, and the others such as military science, household management, and rhetoric revert under its authority. Since it governs the other practical sciences, their ends serve as means to its end, which is nothing less than the human good. Even if the end is the same for an individual and for a city-state, that of the city-state seems at any rate greater and more cease to attain and preserve.For although it is worthy to attain it for only an individual, it is nobler and more divine t o do so for a nation or city-state (EN I. 2. 1094b7-10). Aristotles political science encompasses the two fields which modern philosophers distinguish as ethics and political philosophy. Political philosophy in the narrow sense is roughly speaking the subject of his treatise called the Politics. For a further discussion of this topic, see the following supplementary papers2. Aristotles View of Politics Political science studies the tasks of the politician or national leader (politikos), in much the way that medical science concerns the work of the physician (see Politics IV. 1). It is, in fact, the body of knowledge that such practitioners, if truly expert, will also wield in pursuing their tasks. The most important task for the politician is, in the role of lawgiver, to frame the appropriate constitution for the city-state. This involves enduring laws, customs, and institutions (including a system of moral education) for the citizens. one time the constitution is in place, the pol itician needs to take the appropriate measures to maintain it, to premise reforms when he finds them necessary, and to prevent developments which might sabotage the political system. This is the province of legislative science, which Aristotle regards as more important than politics as exercised in everyday political activity such as the passing of decrees. Aristotle much compares the politician to a craftsman.The analogy is imprecise because politics, in the strict sense of legislative science, is a form of practical knowledge, while a craft like computer architecture or medicine is a form of productive knowledge. However, the comparison is valid to the extent that the politician produces, operates, maintains a legal system according to universal principles (EN VI. 8 and X. 9).In order to appreciate this analogy it is stabilising to observe that Aristotle explains the production of an artifact in basis of four causes the material, formal, efficient, and final causes (Phys. II. 3 and Met. A. 2). For example, clay (material cause) is molded into a vase operate (formal cause) by a potter (efficient or moving cause) so that it can contain liquid (final cause). One can also explain the existence of the city-state in terms of the four causes. It is a kind of community, that is, a collection of parts having some functions and interests in common. Hence, it is made up of parts, which Aristotle describes in various.