Forensic Toxicology Essay

1. What are the three areas covered by forensic toxicology? Toxicology covers post-mortem drug testing, workplace drug testing and investigations into contraband materials. 2. Name six specimen types that are often tested in forensic toxicology. Under what circumstances is each specimen preferred? Blood – When testing for DUI’s, and two samples for every death case. Urine – Preemployment drug testing and is preferred over blood as its eacsy to collect large amounts. Bile and liver fluid – Useful for identifying certain types of drugs Hair – Preemployment testing and is advantageous for looking further back in time Oral fluid – Provides the same benefits of urine without invasion of privacy Breath – Used for preliminary test on highways 3. Name the NIDA 5. Draw a table showing the following characteristics of each drug: structure of a representative molecule, drug group, symptoms of overdose and drug source. National Institute on Drug Abuse 5 cites the following drugs 4. Name several groups of medicinal drugs often involved in fatalities. What characteristics render a drug most likely to be associated with overdose deaths? Sedative hynotics, cardioactive agents, antipsychotic agents, antiepileptic drugs and antidepressants. Miss use, or organ damage leading to failure of metabolism. 5. A 210-pound male consumes three highballs each of which was made with 2 ounces of 80 proof whiskey. What is the expected peak in his blood alcohol concentration? His blood alcohol concentration would raise by less than 0.06% as he is larger than an average male. 6. Name three methods for drug screening describe the advantages and disadvantages of each. Name Advantages Disadvantages Immunoassays High sensitivity Not 100% specific Thin Layer Chromatography Can identify hundreds of compounds in one run and is inexpensive Labour intensive and highly technical Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometry Reliable compound recognition Cannot identify less specific features 7. Contrast gas chromatography with and without a mass spectrometer detector. Describe the advantages of the latter technology. Gas chromatography without a mass spectrometer detector relies solely on retention time however the use of a mass spectrometer detector allows for all components of a mixture to be separated. The advantages of mass spectrometer detectors are that it’s often highly unique and provides a fingerprint of the molecule and therefore one can use both the retention time and unique mass spectrum in order to identify substances. 8. What are three methods of metal analysis? Which is the optimal method and why? Three of the methods of metal analysis are colormetric assays, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry and neutron activation analysis however inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry is the optimal method as it is the most modern and of very high quality. 9. Describe the process of interpreting drug results in the context of preeemployment drug testing. Why is drug testing for employed individuals more difficult? Preemployment drugs test usually use the person in question’s urine, results are interpreted by comparing the level measured to an acceptable baseline. These baselines are not set at 0 because even second hand exposure can lead to trace amounts being metabolised and shown in the urine. Drug testing employed individuals is more difficult as it is usually in the context of confirming that drug abuse was the cause for erratic behaviour, this involves a blood test rather than urine, and further to this there is no agreed level of drug in a system that can be classed as a  Ã¢â‚¬Å"cause† for behaviour. 10. In a published case, an elderly woman with cancer dies. Three fentanyl patches are found on her body. Discuss the investigation of her death with respect to factors that would be significant to the forensic toxicologist in arriving at the cause and manner of death. The patches would be collected as evidence and tested for how much of the active ingredience was still present in the patches and two post mortem blood tests would be taken, one from the heart and one from an extremity, potentially the sites that the patches were applied to would be examined or swabbed also. The main factor in establishing the cause of death would be blood test results.

High School Stabbing Incident Essay

Murrysville, Pennsylvania (CNN) — A teenage boy wielding two kitchen knives went on a stabbing rampage at his high school in Murrysville, Pennsylvania, early Wednesday, before being tackled by an assistant principal, authorities said. Twenty students and a security officer at Franklin Regional Senior High School were either stabbed or slashed in the attack, Westmoreland County District Attorney John Peck told reporters. The accused attacker was been identified as 16-year-old Alex Hribal, according to a criminal complaint made public. Hribal, who was arraigned as an adult, faces four counts of attempted homicide, 21 counts of aggravated assault and one count of possession of a weapon on school grounds, the documents show. â€Å"I’m not sure he knows what he did, quite frankly,† Hribal’s attorney, Patrick Thomassey, said, adding he would file a motion to move the case to juvenile court. â€Å"†¦ We have to make sure that he understands the nature of the charges and what’s going on here. It’s important that he be examined by a psychiatrist and determined where he is mentally. † A doctor who treated six of the victims, primarily teens, said at first they did not know they had been stabbed. â€Å"They just felt pain and noticed they were bleeding,† Dr. Timothy VanFleet, chief of emergency medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, told CNN. â€Å"Almost all of them said they didn’t see anyone coming at them. It apparently was a crowded hallway and they were going about their business, and then just felt pain and started bleeding. † Hribal is accused of using two 8-inch stainless-steel knives in the attack, according to the complaint. He is being held without bail at the Westmoreland County Regional Youth Services Center. ‘Don’t know what I got going down’ The carnage began shortly before the start of classes, when an attacker began stabbing students in a crowded hallway and then went from classroom to classroom. Student Matt DeCesare was outside the school when he heard a fire alarm ring and then saw two students come out of the school covered in blood. Then he saw teachers running into the building and pulling â€Å"a couple of more students out,† he told CNN. The students had been stabbed. To stanch the bleeding, the teachers asked the students for their hoodies. â€Å"We all took our hoodies off and handed them to the teachers to use as tourniquets to stop the bleeding,† he said. Recordings of emergency calls released in the wake of the attack provide a soundtrack of sorts to the terror and chaos that played out inside the school. â€Å"I don’t know what I got going down at school here but I need some units here ASAP,† one officer can be heard saying. Minutes later in another call, another official, breathlessly, can be heard detailing casualties: â€Å"About 14 patients right now. † Then another call for help. â€Å"Be advised inside the school we have multiple stab victims,† one of the officers said. â€Å"So bring in EMS from wherever you can get them. ‘Saw the kid who was stabbing people’ Student Mia Meixner was standing at her locker. â€Å"I heard a big commotion like behind my back,† she told CNN. â€Å"And I turned around and I saw two kids on the ground. † She thought a fight had broken out, but then she saw blood. â€Å"I saw the kid who was stabbing people get up and run away,† she said. Then she saw a girl she knew standing by the cafeteria. â€Å"She was gushing blood down her arm. † Meixner dropped her books and went to help the girl. â€Å"I started hearing a stampede of students coming down from the other end of the hall, saying ‘Get out, we need to leave, go, there’s a kid with a knife. ‘ Then a teacher came over to me and the girl I was trying to help. And she said she would handle the girl and that I should run out. So then I just ran out of the school and tried to get out as soon as possible. † Meixner never heard the attacker utter a word. â€Å"He was very quiet. He just was kind of doing it,† she said. â€Å"And he had this, like, look on his face that he was just crazy and he was just running around just stabbing whoever was in his way. † She said she didn’t know the boy, but he had been in a lot of her classes. â€Å"He kept to himself a lot,† she said. â€Å"He didn’t have that many friends that I know of, but I also don’t know of him getting bullied that much. I actually never heard of him getting bullied. He just was kind of shy and didn’t talk to many people. † Hribal’s attorney described him as a â€Å"nice young man,† who has never been in trouble. â€Å"He’s not a loner. He works well with other kids,† he said. â€Å"†¦ He’s scared. He’s a young kid. He’s 16, looks like he’s 12. I mean, he’s a very young kid and he’s never been in trouble so this is all new to him. † Hribal’s family offered their condolences to everyone involved, Thomassey said. â€Å"They’re very upset. They did not foresee this at all,† he said. Stabbing shatters peace in quiet, upscale community Tackled by an assistant principal Assistant Principal Sam King is being credited with bringing the carnage to an end. King tackled the teen, Peck told reporters. A school resource officer was able to handcuff the suspect, Police Chief Thomas Seefeld said. The accused teen was being treated for injuries to his hands, the chief said. Police Officer William â€Å"Buzz† Yakshe, who also serves as a resource officer at the school, helped subdue the suspect, said Dan Stevens, the county deputy emergency management coordinator. Yakshe is â€Å"doing fine,† Stevens said. â€Å"He’s more upset than anything else over what happened, because these are his kids. † Students stabbed at Pennsylvania school A fire alarm that was pulled during the attack probably helped get more people out of the school during an evacuation order, Seefeld said. Students were running everywhere and there was â€Å"chaos and panic. † At one point, a female student applied pressure to the wounds of one of the male victims, possibly helping to save his life, said Dr. Mark Rubino, chief medical officer at Forbes Regional Hospital in nearby Monroeville, Pennsylvania, where seven teens were taken for treatment. The students who were hurt range in age from 14 to 17, Stevens said. All of the injuries are stabbing-related, such as lacerations or punctures, he said. ‘It doesn’t happen here’ The attack in Murrysville is the latest in a string of school violence that has occurred across the nation. But mass stabbings, such as the one at the high school, are rare. The attack has rattled the town, an upper-middle-class enclave with a population of about 20,000. A message on the Franklin Regional School District’s website said all of its elementary schools were closed after the incident, and â€Å"the middle school and high school students are secure. † Franklin Regional Senior High will be closed â€Å"over the next several days,† district school Superintendent Gennaro Piraino said. The district’s middle school and elementary schools will be open Thursday, and counseling will be available for the whole district, he said. Information on what led to the stabbings and the conditions of the injured are still unfolding. Bill Rehkopf, a KDKA radio host and Franklin Regional High School graduate, called the stabbing shocking. He said he kept thinking, â€Å"It doesn’t happen here, it can’t happen here. â€Å"

Strategic Benefits of Effective Diversity Management

Abstract Diversity management acknowledges the reality that people are different with respect to factors such as gender, marital status, age, disability, social status, sexual orientation, personality, ethnicity, religion, and culture. If a company values diversity in its workforce, it can manage its employees in a way that creates harmony in all work practices and higher standards of collaboration and teamwork. Effective management of workplace diversity results in an innovative culture where creativity has no boundaries and ideas continue to flourish. Thus, it is of paramount importance for companies to integrate diversity in their daily operations. Introduction Diversity entails understanding, acknowledging, accepting, celebrating, and valuing differences among people based on their class, ethnicity, age, physical and mental ability, gender, race, language, religion, and sexual orientation (Hubbard 2004, p.27). In the contemporary world, effective management of diversity is essential because the work-environment is characterised by a wide range of employees from different cultural, social, and religious backgrounds. Moreover, the success of any organisation is highly dependent on how well the employees integrate and collaborative with each other at the workplace. In order to ensure teamwork and collaboration among employees, it is imperative to have effective management of diversity in the workforce (Combe 2013, p.273-277). In most cases, diversity management involves removing barriers and allowing job applicants and employees to have equal access to employment opportunities and promotion; hiring a workforce that reflects the communities wi thin which the organisation operates; empowering all workers to reach their full potential, and encouraging personal growth, as well as professional development among all employees (Paludi 2012, p.123). This paper aims at exploring the strategic benefits of effective diversity management, how diversity is handled at UKRD Group, and it provides some recommendations on how to enhance diversity at UKRD. Literature ReviewBenefits of effective diversity managementDiversity confers various benefits to companies, and as a result, many scholars suggest that it should be a feature of every aspect of an organisation including employee development, succession planning, reviews, performance management, and rewards. To start with, employees from diverse social and cultural backgrounds bring unique skills, perceptions, and experiences to the table while working in teams. Pooling the diverse skills and knowledge from different cultural and social backgrounds increases employees’ productivity, and responsiveness to varying conditions (Buhler 2010, p.91). Furthermore, in a diverse workforce, each employee possesses distinct strengths and weaknesses, drawn from their diverse backgrounds and their individuality. If a company ensures effective diversity management is in place, it is possible to leverage the diverse strengths among employees, and compliment the weakness of each employee to mak e the productivity of the workforce more than the sum of its parts (Griffin 2012, p.241). By bridging together employees from various backgrounds, businesses can market their products effectively to clients from different ethnic and racial backgrounds. This is because by ensuring the workforce reflects the region within which the business operates, it is usually easy to know the expectations, demands, tastes, and preferences of their consumers. As a result, the company will be able to produce goods/services, which conform to their client’s expectations and demands (Thiederman 2008, p.3). Moreover, effective diversity management strengthens the company’s relationship with a given category of customers by making communication efficient. This is achieved by pairing customers with customer-service representatives from their social or cultural background, making them feel comfortable and satisfied. For example, a company operating in the southwest of the U.S. can employ bi-lingual customer representatives in order to serve Spanish-speaking clients in their native language (Guffey & Loewy 2010, p.99). Companies that fail to foster diversity in their workforce experience higher turnover rates than those that treasure diversity in the workplace. This is because they portray a hostile work environment, and consequently, make most of their employees to quit. Inability to retain most of the qualified personnel leads to high turnover-related costs, which a company can avoid by embracing diversity. Losing an employee is highly detrimental to the company’s success because it results to lowered productivity; overworked remaining staff; loss of knowledge and skills; and loss of company’s time while conducting interviews (Griffin 2012). In addition, when employees are working in groups, diversity enables them to generate more and better ideas. Since the group members come from a host of varying cultures, they often propose creative and unique solutions and recommendations, unlike when they come from same backgrounds (Paludi 2012, p.93). In other words, group diversity eliminates groupthink, which is often witnessed in companies that do not foster diversity in their workforce. Groupthink makes participants in a team to think that their ideas and actions are valid, and those objecting them are either sabotaging their efforts or are uninformed. However, multicultural teams are not affected by such problems since the participants have different perspectives (Aswathappa 2013, p.769). By having a positive approach toward diversity at workplace, a company signals an ethical stand. Consequently, it can build and maintain a positive corporate image. A positive corporate image enables a company to have stronger relationships with existing clients, as well as broaden the consumer base by attracting more customers. A strong consumer base is a direct incentive to a noteworthy competitive edge, and it enables companies to face various challenges in the market such as the recession (Mor-Barak 2011). Diversity is also a key aspect in the creation of effective global relationships. Employing international talent helps in enhancing the company’s reputation through outwardly encouraging cultural diversification to a broader consumer-base. If a company hires employees from different countries, it stands a greater chance of expanding and seizing global opportunities by establishing a network of languages and cultures (Guffey & Loewy 2010). Additionally, by creating an environment of inclusion and by making commitment to valuing diversity, managers can boost employee morale and motivation. This is because acknowledging and accepting a person regardless of their social or cultural background makes them feel honoured, and as if they a part of the family ‘company.’ As a result, they will devote all their efforts toward realization of the organisation’s goals (Abiodun 2010, p.82-87).Managing diversity at UKRD GroupUKRD Group is a multi-media company, based in the U.K. The company owns and operates a portfolio of websites, a software-licensing firm, and 16 local commercial radio stations. The company has been ranked number one for three years in a row on the U.K’s top 100 best employers (Toten 2013). Diversity management is central to the company’s human resource strategic goals, which include the development of an inclusive and integrated workforce. UKRD Group acknowledges the benefits of a diverse workforce, and it invests much in ensuring that the work-environment is free from discrimination. Moreover, the company endeavours to promote the principles of diversity in all its operations with employees, job applicants, suppliers, clients, recruitment agencies, contractors, and the public (UKRD Group Ltd, n.d.). According to the company’s CEO, William Rogers, one of the key goals of the company is to build a supportive culture, based on various fundamental standards of behaviour including honesty, fairness, openness, professionalism, and fun. For instance, employees have the liberty to express their disagreement with anything the group purposes to accomplish. However, they are expected to observe fairness and professionalism when presenting their views. Having such a splendid value-based culture portrays a good image of how the company is investing in diversity management. Furthermore, the company does not have a structured human resource department. All the HR functions are outsourced. It has adopted such as strategy in order to encourage the management to have a greater responsibility for their employees. By having a structured HR department, the company’s management believes that the relationship between managers and employees would weaken, since matters such as discipline m ay be shifted from one department to another, and as a result, they may not be handled effectively. This is a viable strategy toward strengthening of the manager-employee relationship, which is key to the effective management of diversity (Toten 2013). All employees as well as anyone who acts on behalf of the company is required to adhere to the company’s set principles of equality and diversity. Any sort of unlawful discrimination in the workplace is not condoned, and the company has put in place necessary measures to prevent its occurrence. Specifically, UKRD Group purposes to ensure that no job applicant or employee is subjected to unlawful discrimination based on gender, race, sexual orientation, disability, age, part-time status, or religion. This commitment is taken into account at all aspects of employment such as training, recruitment, promotion and career-development opportunities, grievance handling and the application of disciplinary procedures, and terms/conditions of employment. Because of the evolving nature of the job market and the legislation changes, the company often reviews its policies regarding diversity, and implements relevant changes (UKRD Group Ltd, n.d.). Recommendations In order for the UKRD Group to be at the forefront in ensuring diversity prevails in all its operations, it is necessary for its management to take into consideration the following suggestions. To start with, it should ensure it has a wide recruiting base. This can be achieved by adopting tools such as online job boards, where anyone with an access to the internet can view the job opportunities being advertised by the company. The company should also have a standard evaluation form. By having a standard evaluation form, instances of discrimination will be eliminated, and it allows the hiring team to use the same criteria for all candidates (Thiederman 2008). Moreover, managers of UKRD should explain the benefits of diversity to the employees, and familiarize the new hires with the company’s culture. For instance, they can clarify the roles the new hires are expected to execute, and explain to them the values treasured in the company (Hubbard 2004, p.85). Conclusion The above discussion has explored the strategic benefits of diversity management, and examined how diversity is handled at UKRD Company Ltd. Since the market is becoming increasingly global, it is necessary for businesses to understand, acknowledge, and embrace diversity in their day-to-day operations, and in their workforce. Effective management of diversity is the key to leveraging the benefits, and reducing the drawbacks associated with diversity in the workplace. Companies reap huge benefits through effective management of diversity. For instance, pooling the diverse skills and experiences from different cultural and social backgrounds increases employees’ productivity and responsiveness to varying conditions. In addition, when employees are working in groups, diversity enables them to generate more and better ideas unlike when they come from the same social or cultural background. Based on this discussion, it is worthwhile arguing that companies should ensure diversity is well managed in order to thrive successfully. Bibliography â€Å"Diversity & Equal Opportunities Statement.† UKRD Group Ltd -. (n.d.). Available from . [14 August 2014]. Abiodun, R. A. (2010). Leadership behavior impact on employee’s loyalty, engagement and organizational performance:. [S.l.], Authorhouse. Aswathappa, K. (2013). Human resource management: text and cases. New Delhi, McGraw Hill Education. Buhler, P. (2010). Human Resources Management All the Information You Need to Manage Your Staff and Meet Your Business Objectives. Cincinnati, F+W Media. Combe, C. (2013). Introduction to management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Griffin, R. W. (2012). Fundamentals of management. Mason, OH, South-Western Cengage Learning. Guffey, M. E., & Loewy, D. (2010). Business communication: process and product. Mason, OH, South-Western/Cengage Learning. Hubbard, E. E. (2004). The manager’s pocket guide to diversity management. Amherst, MA, HRD Press. Mor-Barak, M. E. (2011). Managing diversity: toward a globally inclusive workplace. Los Angeles, SAGE. Paludi, M. A. (2012). Managing diversity in today’s workplace: strategies for employees and employers. Santa Barbara, Calif, ABC-CLIO. Thiederman, S. B. (2008). Making diversity work: 7 steps for defeating bias in the workplace. New York, Kaplan Pub. Toten, Mike. â€Å"Employee engagement case study: UK radio group.† Workplace Info -. Available from . [16 May 2013].

Amazing Paintings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Amazing Paintings - Essay Example The essay "Amazing Paintings" talks about the term golden and describes the main figures regarding the golden selection like a pentagram, golden rhombus, a golden ration and rhombic triacontahedron. The Golden ratio is denoted by Ã'„ (â€Å"phi†) which were first used by Mark Barri in the beginning of the 20th century in the remembrance of the Greek Sculptor Phidias, who was claimed by a number of historians who made extensive use of the golden ratio in his work. Philosopher Heinrich Agrippa a German magician came up with a drawing of a man over a pentagram in the 16th century inside a circle which denoted a relationship to the golden ratio. An Italian artistLeonardo da Vinci at around 1466- 1476 gave an illustration of polyhedra on the divine quantity and his views of bodily quantities to display the golden ratio which made some scholars speculate. Mondrian also used the golden sections in his geometrical paintings widely. Vitruvian Man is a drawing created by Leonardo da Vinci in 1490. Salvador Dali, Spanish nationalist swans reflecting elephant in1937. Piet Mondrian major painting works were Museum of Modern, Art in New York City and Post-impressionist work in 1908. He was a Dutch nationality. Mondrian who was born in Amersfoort, Netherlands, was introduced to an art by his father at the tender age he used to draw and paint along the River Gain. The four outlined lengths are in terms of the golden ratio which is used in illustrating the el egant and mathematical nature of pentagram.

Developing and Sustaining the Brand Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Developing and Sustaining the Brand - Essay Example The micro factors include all internal forces like customer satisfaction, the company's financial stability, and the way a product is positioned in the market by the organization. Beyond these, there are external forces at work including the political environment, general economic conditions, legal or regulatory changes, as well as the impact that increasing consumer environmental awareness is making on fuel sources and eco-friendly corporate practice. The author then moves into a section on the development and survival of brands, noting that the standard product life cycle, i.e., introduction, growth, maturity, and decline, are all applicable to a brand as well. The key to survival is adaptation, rejuvenation, innovation, or re-positioning. Adaptation, the author notes, is a long-term process and the article cites McDonald's as a prime example of a brand engaging in adaptation; recognizing cultural demands or health concerns, and tailoring product offerings by adapting to the new ma rket trends. Rejuvenation is a dual-prong process, whereby innovation and repositioning are combined to give a brand a new start. Innovation, the article notes, need not be radical; it can be incremental with minor improvements accumulating over time to result in major differences in the products or services offered.

Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Research Assignment

Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Research - Assignment Example To maintain data untainted in any way, researchers and interviewers need to create questions in ways that would not affect the outcome through preconception of answers from the interviewees (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Using methods least-likely to affect the interviewees by allowing them to be themselves without necessitating them to change their attitudes and collecting data as soon as possible, biases or inconsistencies in interviewee data can be minimized. An approach on qualitative interviewing called phenomenological analysis has been devised so as to prevent such biases, wherein there is a need to find out the phenomenon of a lived experience by allowing researchers to take part in another individual’s experience and interpret these experiences based on their own and within their consciousness (Letts, et al., 2007; Smith, et al., 2009). The phenomenological analysis is concerned with collecting human experiences using philosophical principles and rationale in study ing human experiences through various and vivid descriptions of each experience (Holloway, 2005). After the delivery of either a highly-specific or highly-generic question, collation of data is done through the assimilation of similarities and differences and tallying the results so as to find out any factors that might have any effects on the experiences of the interviewees. By using a minimalist approach, interviewees are allowed to give much more focus on the effects or the impact of their own experiences rather than analyzing the reasons on why they had these experiences in the first place (Wimpenny & Gass, 2000). Reduction or bracketing in conducting interviews using the phenomenological analysis is considered so as to prevent any misconceptions or presuppositions on behalf of both parties. However the use of such an analysis is not considered to be an ultimate method in itself since phenomenological analysis does not employ any exacting style or process, thus it is considered to be an approach in obtaining data (Wimpenny & Gass, 2000). With regards to specific methods, the Grounded theory can be considered because it utilizes methods of obtaining qualitative data via approaches such as phenomenological analysis in the identification of social processes in any given situation (Letts, et al., 2007; Mills, Bonner, & Francis, 2008; Wimpenny & Gass, 2000). However, similarities end here as grounded theory is not used in its entirety but instead is only employed as one of the methods used in order to obtain qualitative data, whereas phenomenological approach is seen as abstract and generalised concept in the process of theory formulation and analysis of qualitative information (Wimpenny & Gass, 2000). Thus, the grounded theory can be employed as only one of the few methods to systematically obtain qualitative data, and the phenomenological approach is the overall driving force.

Australian Contract Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Australian Contract Law - Essay Example However, after informing James, Bert advertised the sale at $ 60,000 or near. Also, the advertisement was made on the notice board of the Historic Speed Boat Club. As a response, there was one more buyer; Alphonse. Bert duly informed the new buyer about the existing right of first refusal and claimed that he would be selling only at $ 60,000 or near. Alphonse inspected the boat and offered $ 60,000 as he came to know that someone has the right of first refusal if the amount is $50,000. Bert rang James and communicated this information and James agreed to buy the boat at the agreed price of $ 50,000. However, Alphonse claims that the speed boat was originally sold before the discussion. In the case AstraZenaca UK Limited v. Albemarle International Corporation and Albemarle Corporation (2011) EWHC 1574 (Comm), (as cited in Howell 2011), the English High Court made certain findings which reduced the ambiguity surrounding the right to first refusal. According to the terms of the rights of first refusal, if one party grants a right of first refusal to another party, the former still has the right to find a third party buyer, and before signing an agreement with the third party, the same terms should be offered to the right holder; and if the right holder accepts the terms, it should be given preference (ibid). In other words, in the given case, the seller has the right to accept any third party offer, but it has the obligation to disclose the full details of the offer to the first refusal right holder and give the chance to match the offer. If the right holder fails to match the new offer from the third party, the seller has the right to sell it to the third party Silverthorne (2006). Here, one can see that Bert had properly informed James about the advertisement for a higher price. Also, he had duly communicated with James about the new offer when Alphonse

Week 7 Discussion Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 7 Discussion Questions - Assignment Example The American website offers a feel of black & white picture of the product image and the product features, while the Indian website uses the color element variously, particularly red color in sub titles of the product traits besides showing total range of all series available in black & white and color MFD models, differentiating them through the use of colored text, on the left side of the web page. The Indian webpage of the product focuses on the external features of the product, such as its design and frame but pinpointing at the same that the product is the outcome of â€Å"cutting-edge technologies.† Another mentionable difference is that the American web page of the product also includes and presents another similar product description as features of both are same. That similar product is MX-3100N. The American web page does not mention that the Open System Architecture is 3.0, unlike its Indian counterpart. Whether a gray market product available in the US market poses any risk or not, depends on the kind of product. Some gray market products can be too risky to purchase, for instance purchasing of drugs from the gray market in the US; it could be risky to the extent of life-threatening. As per the survey conducted by Premier Healthcare Alliance in 2011, a call for gray market drugs was posted in the Premier Pharmacy Weekly Update in the last week of April 2011, specifying the national drug codes (NDCs) and their retail prices for comparison with Premier base contract prices (Cherici et al. 1). Comparison of the drugs of gray market with of Premier base contract prices proved that all gray market drugs were manufacturer back-ordered or short-supply drugs. The marketing strategy used by gray vendors to sell their drugs was in the form of emails and fliers, using language tool such, â€Å"We only have 20 of this drug left and quantities are going fast.† All marketing and sale offers online were made for those drugs

Christians and War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Christians and War - Essay Example Theorists' points of view concerning War are also highly influential in this research and Thomas Aquinas is one of the theorists whose ideas about War can be found within the compiled pages. The conclusion demonstrates that War is not ever pretty nor is it wanted by anyone but there are times where moral obligation and intervention to protect others rights are necessary and of which can lead to a period of War in the world. The finality is the fact that War is an actual part of life and has been occurring since the biblical times and therefore the only thing that society can morally do is come to accept that it is an occurrence that will always be looming in the background of everyday existence. War, from a Christian perspective has to meet many moral principles in order for it to be justified. However, Vance's1 literary work (2005) defines the fact that for centuries Christians have been opposed to war under any form or even when there has been proof that there are legitimate reasons for it. Of course this is only one theologians point of view, others such as Father Webster of the Orthodox faith and Professor Darrell Cole have stated in the past and currently that there is a moral justification found in some acts of war and they both agree that the war in Iraq is one prime example for a Christian justification for the entity of war to be accepted by Christians everywhere2. For instance, when Christians look back in time, back to the biblical period it can be seen that war was a part of life even when Jesus walked among the people. There were armies of soldiers in the name of Jesus Christ and the fighting that took place in this period was considered to be morally justified and pertinent to the Christian cause. Although there no longer exists armies of Christian warriors fighting to protect the knowledge of Jesus against the Roman Empire there are soldiers who fight in wars for countries who are bonafide Christians and fight for what they perceive to be morally right and with justified cause 3. Father Webster states that for some theologians to claim that war is not justified under any means and that Christians should always turn away from it is morally wrong due to the fact that soldiers can display Christian virtue and stating otherwise is derivative of a pacifist's view point4. This brings in the concept among many Christians titled the, "Just War Th eory," which as was mentioned is the main theorization put to use by those of a Christian following to try and determine the cause and justification for any war in present times and the past as well. The utilization of the Just War theory, of which this researcher agrees about as well, has been used to evaluate military actions for decades. The initial historical thinkers who first recognized this theory were wide and varied, some being Cicero, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Grotius, and Daniel Webster . As was stated it is a Christian based theorization which Christians and even non-Christians alike have utilized to determine

Dual and Cooperative Federalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dual and Cooperative Federalism - Essay Example The founders of federalism hoped to create a government system that is similar to a unitary system. However, the states were included in the system since they already had established government systems that were functional. Thus, the founders of the federalism granted the national government powers and reserve the remaining powers to the local or state governments. Moreover, these expressed powers given to the national government provide an avenue for expansion of the implied powers. Federalism further involves complex relationships among a number of states. For instance, in the United States of America, the constitution of United States of America requires the states to honor all the public acts and the decisions being made by the judiciary of other states. Moreover, federalism involves a number of limitations on the state authority, especially involving the relationships between the state governments. The local governments are not recognized in the federal constitution thus they are used by the states to perform or rather conduct normal activities of the government. Thus, federalism still remains the best governance system in United States of America. This is one of the US achievements as it transferred or rather created an effective constitution structure of the political institution. Hence, federalism and the entire separation of power in the national and state governments relieve other law enacting bodies off the burden of law implementation.

Clara Schumann Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Clara Schumann - Essay Example In fact she has made a unique world of music which was unknown to the public till that time. The contributions of Clara Schumann to the world of music remain unique, especially when we consider the fact that most of the ancient musicians were from the dominant male community and females had many restrictions in the society during her life period. â€Å"In an era when women, apart from singers, almost never performed in public or composed, Clara Schumann did both† (Clara Schumann (1819-1896)). This paper analyses the life and contributions of Clara Schumann and answer the question "Why did Clara Schumann have great success during a time when women had many restrictions in society?" As in the cases of other regions and countries, the conditions of German women in the nineteenth century were not so encouraging. German women forced to work hard for finding livelihood, especially poor women. German women forced to work in domestic services and in shops during this period and it was difficult for them to concentrate on recreational areas like music because of the over burden of looking after their family and the male dominance in the society. Historically, German women faced severe discrimination in the society mainly because of the Christian prejudice against women. They were excluded even from church participation in till the beginning of the nineteenth century.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"As late as 1700, women were not allowed to sing in churches.  In the Middle Ages, women were still subordinate to men. They could not be active in the political life of the society† (Gordeeva). However, Clara Schumann’s father was a brave person who had liberal views about social life. He never believed in traditions and customs even though he studied theology. He was a musician by profession and did everything needed to encourage his daughter Clara to learn music. However, Clara’s father was cruel at times which forced her to concentrate fully on her profession and l earn more and more topics in piano playing. Clara slowly gained popularity and started to mesmerize the audience with her immense talents on Piano. She was able to play piano from her memory which was a rare sight during that period. In 1830’s, she met several famous musicians of that time, including Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, and Robert Schumann. The meeting with Robert Schumann made lot of changes in her life. â€Å"By 1836, Clara had become completely infatuated with Robert Schumann and her father’s concern over the suitability of the match was apparent†Ã‚  (Clara Schumann (1819-1896)). But her father was against this relationship. Robert Schumann was comparatively an unknown composer while Clara was already a famous and accomplished performer. â€Å"On March 15, 1838, at the age of 18, she received the greatest honor Austria could bestow: She was named Royal and Imperial Chamber Virtuosa, even though she was a protestant, foreigner and a femaleâ €  (Reich, p.3). In other words, Clara’s popularity and fame was not limited to the boundaries of Germany alone. She became world famous even at the age of 18 which forced her father to try and break her love affair with Robert Schumann. Clara’s father tried to prevent Clara from meeting Schumann, but they strengthened their love affair through secret romantic letters. German laws during that period prevented a woman from marrying without her father’s consent. The battle between Clara’

A Description of Marketing Essay Example for Free

A Description of Marketing Essay Philip Kotler has defined marketing as satisfying needs and wants through an exchange process. The marketing concept is the philosophy that firm should analyze the need of costumer and then make decision to satisfy those needs, the better than competition. A marketing plan is a comprehensive blueprint which outlines an organizations overall marketing efforts. The last step in the process is the marketing controlling. The marketing plan can function from two points that is strategy and tactics. In most organizations, strategic planning is an annual process, typically covering just the year ahead. Occasionally, a few organizations may look at a practical plan which stretches three or more years ahead. Behind the corporate objectives, which in themselves offer the main context for the marketing plan, will lay the corporate mission, which in turn provides the context for these corporate objectives. In a sales-oriented organization, the marketing planning function designs incentive pay plans to not only motivate and reward frontline staff fairly but also to align marketing activities with corporate mission. The marketing plan basically aims to make the business provide the solution with the awareness with the expected customers. According to Malcolm McDonald, marketing strategies can be seen as the means, or game plan, by which marketing objectives will be achieved and, in the framework that we have chosen to use, are generally concerned with the 8 Ps that is price, product, promotion, placement, people, physical, process and packaging. See more:Â  Mark Twains Humorous Satire in Running for Governor Essay * Price is the amount of money needed to buy products * Product is the actual product * Promotion is getting the product known by all people. * Placement is where the product is sold * People is represent the business * Physical environment is the ambiance, mood, or tone of the environment * Process is the Value-added services that differentiate the product from the competition e.g. after-sales service, warranties * Packaging is how the product will be protected A marketing plan for a small business typically includes Small Business Administration Description of competitors, including the level of demand for the product or service and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors, description of the product or service, including special features, marketing budget, including the advertising and promotional plan, Description of the business location, including advantages and disadvantages for marketing, pricing strategy, and market segmentation.

The Purpose of Internal Controls

The Purpose of Internal Controls Internal controls are a relevant part of any business. In order for an organization to meet its obligations and be a success it is imperative that it implements controls in an attempt to safeguard its assets, its employee and its continual existence. This paper explains the reasons why internal controls needs to be implemented, present a framework which describes its components and identify entities which foresees that procedures are followed and maintained. Controlling What Happens Robins defend territories as pairs during the breeding season and as individuals during the winter. When dogs find bones, they bury it in a safe place and constantly make sure they are safe at all times. What these animal have in common is their desire to protect their assets and possessions. One of the most important acts a manager can do is to safeguard assets. The main purpose of internal controls is to help the organization to achieve its objectives and to make sure that the business operates as efficiently and as professionally as possible. In order to understand internal controls, it is imperative that one knows what they are, the definition of internal controls, the categories, the components of internal controls as well as the entities that foresee that internal control procedures are followed and maintained. According to â€Å"SEC Proposes Rules on Internal Controls, Ethics Codes and Financial Experts on Audit Committees,† the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants defines internal controls as â€Å"controls that pertain to the preparation of financial statements for external purposes that are fairly presented in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles as addressed by the Codification of Auditing Standards Section 319 or any superseding definition or other literature that is issued or adopted by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board† ( Haynes and Boone, LLP, 2002). They play a vital role and cannot be omitted from a business. This is because they ensure that employees as well as employers are providing reasonable assertions. In other words, they check the employees and employers actions and thoughts in a way which are meant to promote and better the business by preventing them from doing things their own way, or from robbing the business . They are established by management and they must make sure it is effective. According to R. L. Hurt, the significance of controls cannot be stressed enough, â€Å"In the importance of internal controls managers, stockholders, employees, and other organizational stakeholders want a company to operate as effectively and efficiently as possible, to have financial statements that are reliable, and to make sure their assets are safe† (Hurt, 2008, p.53). They are basically a plan of organization within a business which co-ordinates with all the methods used in the business to safeguard its assets. It further promotes productivity and aids management to hold on to rules and policies of the organization. Internal controls can be classified into two; preventive and detective. The main purpose of preventive controls is to detect errors within or dampen the chances of fraud. According to â€Å"Internal Control Concept and Framework,† preventive control activities â€Å"aim to deter the instance of errors or fraud† (University Of Washington, 2009). This is the most effective control because it checks against fraud, scams and errors before they occur. It is important to note that before it can become effective, it will be necessary to have a strong risk detection system within the organization. Detective controls identify errors or fraudulent activities after they take place. In other words, â€Å"Detective control activities identify undesirable occurrences after the fact† (University Of Washington, 2009). This method can cause problems if the after effect was significant, such as Enron and WorldCom. In such occasions, the most common detective control is reconciliat ion. In an attempt to help businesses and organization improve their internal control systems, the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commissions, otherwise known as COSO was formed. COSO is a voluntary private-sector organization and was established in 1985 and consists of a select committee which includes the American Accounting Association, American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Financial Executives International, Institute of Management Accountants and The Institute of Internal Auditors (The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commissions). The main purpose of COSO is to identify actions or activities which influence fraudulent practices in businesses and to identify way of minimizing their occurrences. According to the American Accounting Association, â€Å"COSOs Mission is to provide thought leadership on enterprise risk management, internal control and fraud deterrence designed to improve organizational performance and governance and to reduce the extent of fraud in organizations†(American Accounting Association, 2008, p. 3). In 1992, COSO established an internal control framework which consists of five components and are meant to be integrated within the management process to ensure success. These components consist of control environment, risk assessment, control activities, information and communication and finally monitoring. Control Environment deals with the controllers and leaders of the business or company. In other words, this component talks mainly with management. The whole purpose is to make managers aware that internal controls begin in top management and thus cannot be effective without them playing an integral role in it. According to Lightle, Castellano and Cutting in their article, â€Å"Assessing the Control Environment,† they state that, â€Å"Of the five, the control environment may be the most critical, as well as the most difficult to manage and evaluate effectively† (Lightle, Castellano, Cutting, 2007, p. 52). They further state that â€Å"An effective control environment supports and strengthens the other control elements whereas a weak control environment undermines the other elements, rendering them useless† (p. 51). This environment emphasizes that if controls are not taken seriously by management, employees will also not take it serious. This is the reason why control environment is the backbone of the rest of the controls and without it, implementing ethical values and integrity in employees will be difficult. Risk assessment deals with the processes used to identifying organizational risks and threats within an organization and finding cost effective controls to deal with them. According to AICPA, risk assessment is â€Å"the identification and analysis of relevant risks to achieve the objectives that form the basis to determine how risks should be managed† (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 2005). An effective way to make this work is to consider both internal and external aspect of the business before it can be successful to its highest capacity. According to Sarbanes-Oxley, an â€Å"effective risk assessment requires; definition of the objectives, determination of the compatibility of the objectives, identification of risks to achieving the objectives, determination of risks associated with change, judgment as to which risks are critical and determination of actions to mitigate risks starting with the critical ones† (Walz, 2008). The third internal control framework of COSO is control activities. This component deals with the actions or actual controls executed in response to the information acquired from an effective risk assessment. They are the actual policies and procedures such as authorizations and approvals which aid management in making sure that organizational objectives are achievable. Information and communication is another important part of business which cannot be overlooked. This is because the process and what information is passed on can cause a lot of problems within the organization. It is imperative that the information flows is as accurate in the organization as possible in a way that ensures the right message is sent to the right person with the right encoding and the receiver has no problem in deciphering it. Effective information and communication helps in minimizing control risks and is directed mainly to employees to be responsible and careful in how they deal with sending and receiving information. In summary, the information and communication component aims in improving or maintaining quality and efficiency in communication within the organization. Unfortunately, some businesses are too big to accommodate any significant control process. According to â€Å"Effective Internal Control Systems Are Key to Ensuring Compliance†, â€Å"Informatio n and communication are the identification, capture, and exchange of information in a form and time frame that enable people to carry out their responsibilities† (Gundling, 2003). Monitoring is the final component of the COSO framework. It deals mainly with the evaluation and assessment of the organizations system of controls. It basically looks as the operations of an organization over a period of time to evaluate whether their objectives are being accomplished. So in effect, it is imperative that management assesses their internal control system to make sure that they are acquiescent to the organizations standard of controlling risks. According to â€Å"COSO Document Covers Internal Control Monitoring†, â€Å"COSO Document Covers Internal Control Monitoring,† he states that effective monitoring occurs by â€Å"establishing a foundation for monitoring, designing and executing monitoring procedures that are prioritized based on risk and reporting the results of monitoring to the appropriate level† (McCollum, 2008). A good way to ensure monitoring is used in its most effective way is to ensure that there are people who are qualified or have gone through training in that field and can ensure that the process it taken the tight way. This is because if management does not fully comprehend its importance the whole process could fall apart. One important aspect of monitoring is that the process should be taken serious and that risks discovered during that period should be directed to the relevant staff for corrective measures. Because of the extreme impact of the scandals that Enron and WoldCom brought into the business field, there have been entities which have been placed into the business field to prevent these fraudulent activities from occurring, one of these is the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002. According to† Making compliance effective,† the act â€Å"was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush in large part because of the spectacular failures of Enron, WorldCom and other public companies† (Engle, 2009). Understanding the importance of internal controls can be difficult to comprehend. However the consequences of not adhering them are tougher to deal with. This can be seen by the utter chaos Enron and WorldCom have caused. Without controls goals and assets will be lost and operations will be terminated prematurely. Without internal controls, soon there will be no business. References Haynes and Boone, LLP, (2002). SEC Proposes Rules on Internal Controls, Ethics Codes and Financial Experts on Audit Committees. World Services Group, Retrieved from http://www.hg.org/articles/article_201.html Hurt, R. L. (2008). Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts Current Issues. New York: McGraw-Hill. University Of Washington, (2009, July 16). Internal Control Concept and Framework. Retrieved from http://www.washington.edu/admin/finacct/office/internalcontrol/frame.html The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commissions, Initials. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved from http://www.coso.org/aboutus.htm American Accounting Association, (2008, April, 1). Mission and operating policies. Committee of Sponsoring Organizations, Retrieved 09/07/2009, from http://aaahq.org/newsarc/COSOChairPosition.pdf Lightle, S., Castellano, J., Cutting, B. (2007, December). Assessing the control environment. Internal Auditor, 64(6), 51-56. Retrieved 09/07/2009, from Business Source Complete database. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=truedb=bthAN=28323854site=ehost-livescope=site American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (2005). Internal control: a tool for the audit committee. Retrieved 09/07/2009, from American Institute of Certified Public Accountants Web site: http://www.aicpa.org/audcommctr/toolkitsnpo/Internal_Control.htm Walz, John (2008, April 11). Retrieved 09/07/2009, from Table Comparing COSO and ISO 9001 Web site: http://www4.asq.org/blogs/sarbanes-oxley/2008/04/table_comparing_coso_and_iso_9.html Gundling, Richard L. (2003, October). Effective internal control systems are key to ensuring compliance. Journal of Health Care Compliance, 2, Retrieved 09/07/2009, from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=truedb=bthAN=11291132site=bsi-live McCollum, T (2008, August). COSO Document Covers Internal Control Monitoring. Internal Auditor, [65(4)], [13-14, 2]. Engle, Paul. (2009). Making compliance effective. Industrial Engineer: IE, 41(8), Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=truedb=a9hAN=43346883site=ehost-livescope=site

Pickering: The Victorian Gentleman

Pickering: The Victorian Gentleman Pickering the Victorian Gentleman: In the play many characters changed as the play went on like Pickering. Pickering in the play seemed to be a gentleman around others and also treated them as a gentleman would treat them. But in act 4 the reader sees that Pickering is not the man he seems to act or look like. In act 4 the reader sees a switch from being a gentleman to a disrespecting man. The first example is in act 4 where pickering is talking to Higgins, another gentleman who turned out to be a disrespectful man as well, about Liza while she is right in front of them. This demonstrates that instead of acknowledging Liza which is in the room during the conversation he in fact ignores her and then proceeds to talk about her and not in a good way but in a bad way. Before this happened the reader can see that Pickering treats Liza with respect and dignity but now we see that he in fact disrespects her in a very rude way. In act 5 we see pickering acts different towards Liza by acting very respectful towards her. In act 5 he talks to her in a calm very gentleman like way while Higgins goes off on Liza for her attitude in the ending of act 4. In act 5 the reader sees that pickering acts nice and confident towards Liza to convince her to go back to Higgins house to finish what he started. This demonstrates that pickering can act nice towards her Liza by acting like a gentl eman towards her. Pickerings relationship with other characters like Higgin and Liza are respectful and very gentleman like. With Higgins he treats him like an acquaintance or like a friend but nothing more. The reader can see this in act 3 when mrs.Higgin tells her son Liza is not ready to be presented to the public in which in response both Pickering and Higgins both praise Liza for she has become. Another example of Pickering with Higgins is in act 2 where we see that Higgins does not have any personal feelings towards Liza but only professional feelings. Pickerings attitude with Liza is also respectful in a professional and kind way. An example of this is in act 2 where we see when Pickering offers to pay for all the lessons to Higgins for him to transform Liza from a corner street flower girl to a perfect speaking younglady worthy of being in a high class environment. Another example where we see Pickering being very gentleman like to Liza is in act 5 where Liza is talking to Pickering about how he has helped her build the self-respect she had by Your calling me Miss Doolittle that day when I first came to Wimpole Street. That was the beginning of self-respect for me. And there were a hundred little things you never noticed, because they came naturally to you. Things about standing up and taking off your hat and opening doorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. During the victorian time majority of the men were gentleman or at least nice to other people. Pickering during this time found his role and responsibilities and played it well by being an almost perfect gentleman. The reader sees this in act 5 when Liza gave thanks to Pickering for being a gentleman and treating her like a lady. Your calling me Miss Doolittle that day when I came to Wimpole Street. That was the beginning of self-respect for me. Another way he showed a character that was nothing but a gentleman was when he offered to pay for the lessons that Liza would have to pay for herself with the money that Higgins threw at her in act 1. Pickering gave Liza the opportunity to turn into a high class woman with the ability to be around other high class woman and act like she belonged there. This illustrates that although Higgins only took it turning Liza to a high class woman as a joke, Pickering saw it as an opportunity to turn a flower girl to something much better and he gave h er that option. In the victorian time the culture for men where either respecting women or not respecting them. Like in act 5 Higgins does not respect Liza when confronted about what happened in act 4 but when Pickering does confront her also in act 5 he does so in a manner that respects Liza in a way that does not insult her or disrespect her in any way. In conclusion Pickering shows us that he was a gentleman through most of the play and does not disrespect her in any way because those are part of his values, that is how he treats the majority of characters, and during that time that was the culture at the time.

Rhetorical Visions in the Film, American History X Essay -- Films Movi

Rhetorical Visions in the Film, American History X â€Å"Hate is baggage. Life's too short to be pissed off all the time†. This is a quote from the film American History X. This film sends out a powerful message about hate groups such as skinheads and Neo-Nazis. The vision of this movie is to make others aware of the complex life of a skinhead. Through different symbolism we see how society views this group. We also are made aware of the continuous cycle of violence that continues to exist even after a powerful leader changes his view. American History X is important to analyze because it shows how one man’s rhetorical vision changes through life experiences. This film depicts the lifestyles of skinheads and how one person with a vision leads others to worship everything he is and everything he believes in. How can a leader with so much rhetorical vision and passion about one thing change over a period of time? The importance of this film is to observe how a character develops. It also shows a social and psychological issue that has been around for many years and how it only takes one person to change how a group thinks. I will attempt to answer the research question by using Bormann’s Symbolic Convergence Theory and Fantasy Theme. The goal of this paper is to â€Å"provide insight in the shared worldview of a group of rhetors† (Bormann as cited in Foss 121). I will also show repeated phrases that lead to different rhetorical visions. I will explain how fantasy types emerge and also how symbolism reflects the rhetorical visions. The first part of my paper will include two different literary reviews that have been done on fantasy themes. One of them specifically deals with hate groups and how th... ...spectives (1999): Vol. 1 Issue 3: p19, 4p. Academic Premier. InfoTrac. Scarborough- Phillips Lib., Austin, TX. 20 Feb. 2004. Benoit, William L., et al. â€Å"A Fantasy Theme Analysis of Political Cartoons on the Clinton-Lewinsky-Starr Affair.† Critical Studies in Media Communication. Vol.18, No.4, December 2001, 377-394. Billingsley, Robert D. â€Å"Hard working youngsters or Nazi thugs?† Federal Probation; Sep. 93, Vol 57, Issue 3. p88, 2p. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. InfoTrac. Scarborough-Phillips Lib., Austin, TX 20 Feb. 2004. Duffy, Margaret E. â€Å"Web of Hate: A Fantasy Theme Analysis of the Rhetorical Vision of Hate Groups On Line.† Journal of Communication Inquiry 27:3 (July 2003): 291-312. Foss, Sonja K. Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration & Practice. (2nd Edition). Illinois Heights: Waveland Press. 1989.

The Model Theory Of Dedekind Algebras :: Algebra Mathematics Essays

The Model Theory Of Dedekind Algebras ABSTRACT: A Dedekind algebra is an ordered pair (B, h) where B is a non-empty set and h is a "similarity transformation" on B. Among the Dedekind algebras is the sequence of positive integers. Each Dedekind algebra can be decomposed into a family of disjointed, countable subalgebras which are called the configurations of the algebra. There are many isomorphic types of configurations. Each Dedekind algebra is associated with a cardinal value function called the confirmation signature which counts the number of configurations in each isomorphism type occurring in the decomposition of the algebra. Two Dedekind algebras are isomorphic if their configuration signatures are identical. I introduce conditions on configuration signatures that are sufficient for characterizing Dedekind algebras uniquely up to isomorphisms in second order logic. I show Dedekind's characterization of the sequence of positive integers to be a consequence of these more general results, and use configuration signat ures to delineate homogeneous, universal and homogeneous-universal Dedekind algebras. These delineations establish various results about these classes of Dedekind algebras including existence and uniqueness. 1. INTRODUCTION One of the more striking accomplishments of foundational studies prior to 1930 was the characterization of various mathematical systems uniquely up to isomorphism (see Corcoran [1980]). Among the first systems to receive such a characterization is the sequence of the positive integers. Both Dedekind and Peano provided characterizations of this system in the late 1880's. Dedekind's characterization commenced by considering B, a non-empty set, and h, a "similar transformation" on B (i.e. an injective unary function on B). In deference to Dedekind, the ordered pair B = (B,h) is called a Dedekind algebra. While the study of Dedekind algebras can naturally be viewed as a continuation of Dedekind's work, the focus here is different. Rather than investigating whether a particular Dedekind algebra (the sequence of the positive integers) is characterizable, we proceed by investigating conditions on Dedekind algebras which imply that they are characterizable. In the following we review some of the results obtained in the model theory of Dedekind algebras and discuss some of their consequences. These results are stated without proofs. Weaver [1997a] and [1997b] provide the details of these proofs. Attention is restricted here to the model theory of the second order theories of Dedekind algebras. Weaver [1998] focuses on the model theory of the first order theories of these algebras. 2. CONFIGURATIONS Given a Dedekind algebra B = (B,hB), AB is the transitive closure of hB.

Literary Analysis of Dorian Gray Essay

To describe the walking dead all of the following apply: soulless, insatiable hunger, actions based purely on instinct; these qualities combined, with or without the rotting flesh, make a zombie but also can be readily applied to the main character of The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde. The novel analyzes the value of beauty and pleasure and poses a very interesting contradiction between the traditional views of morality and quality of life. Dorian, an aesthetic young man, is tempted into vice, thus selling his soul for eternal beauty. In the late 19th century, Saul Kripke: a philosopher, proposed the idea of philosophical zombies. His theory proposed a creature visually and behaviorally the same as a human being that lacks qualia, soul and sentience (Kirk 2). While it is easy for readers to simply write Dorian’s worsening acts of societally rejected behaviors as immoral, it can be argued that the protagonist had no concept of morals to begin with, and thus learns the p ublic’s immoral as moral and vice versa. In the preface of the novel, Wilde asserts that â€Å"There is no such thing as a moral or immoral book. Books are well written, or badly written. That is all† (3). This is a statement that is good to be kept in mind when analyzing the main character’s actions. Subtly, through a number of literary devices – namely characterization, archetypes, and motifs – Wilde forces the reader to experience life in all its glory as well as shame through a zombie’s eyes. To properly analyze the character of Dorian Gray it must first be understood that there is a distinct difference between someone who lacks morals and someone that is immoral; the first is deficient in the qualia that give the concepts of right or wrong, and the second is someone who knows the difference and chooses to act immorally. Dorian Gray is the prior. Upon meeting Dorian, Lord Henry immediately observes â€Å"All the candour of youth was there, as well as all youth’s passionate purity. One felt that he had kept himself unspotted from the world. No wonder Basil Hallward worshipped him† (Wilde 17), the most important word being purity. Dorian does not have a sense of right or wrong at the beginning of the novel  because he simply looks onto the world. It is not reflected on him in anyway because Dorian is, in short, in capable of perceiving on his own, lacking the sentience to do so. He simply does, drifting from (presumably) male figure to male figure seeking some sort of attention and guidance; he does not act, he only responds to the world around him. Basil Hallward, a painter, admires Dorian for his beauty – but it is neither the scarlet lips nor the golden hair that attracts him but rather the blankness of his soul, and that is the first hint that our protagonist is, in fact, as zombie. Basil tells Lord Henry, â€Å"Dorian Gray is to me simply a motive in art. You might see nothing in him. I see everything in him. He is never more present in my work than when no image of him is there† (Wilde 13). Henry will see nothing because nothing is present. He is a walking piece of art, thoughtless, thoug h responding as human might and that is what attracts both Basil Hallward and Lord Henry to Dorian like moths to light. His personality is something that cannot be comprehended by either man, because it lacks the components of personality to begin with. However, as all great novels require a plot, Henry seeks to color the boy’s snow white mind with qualia of the darkest shades, and while doing so, readers begin notice the distinct difference between Dorian and his human friends. This novel is full of archetypes. From inanimate ones, such as the winding staircase in Dorian’s home that represents the journey of life or the tower in which the protagonist hides his decaying portrait that represents the depth of the human soul, to living archetypes, such as Basil Hallward who illustrates Victorian morals and Lord Henry who is the direct opposition. Meanwhile, Dorian simply is. He sits between two extremes, Basil, who believes people are intrinsically kind and, Henry, who believes that all people live their lives abstaining from sin until they inevitably give in. Constantly, their views of right and wrong are imposed on him, ultimately confusing him. His original close friend cautions him from living the way Henry tells him to, but the artist did not impose his own qualia on him from the start. The first views Dorian internalizes are from Henry, the very same man who believes that â€Å"experience holds no ethical value† (Wilde 54) and, â€Å"[likes] persons with no principles most of all† (11). Lord Henry detaches himself from feelings, preferring to be an observer of the limitations of human beings. He tries to see just how much black paint he can smear across  Basil’s blank canvas of a boy, symbolizing the battle of good and evil – an external conscience rather than an internal one. In the end, Dorian is smeared from head to toe in what society views as sin, solidified when he takes Basil’s life. At this point, he has live thirty-eight years, with roughly eighteen of them being influenced by hedonism. Dorian takes those ideas and develops a sense of right and wrong, beauty being the basis for his moral code. The color white is a motif that is repeated throughout the text, from Basil’s first description of Dorian (Wilde 4) to hi s final plea, â€Å"Though your sins be scarlet, [†¦] I will make them white as snow† (140). It is Basil’s love (the running source of homoeroticism in the novel) for Dorian that leads him to appeal for his life one more, but god does not fit into Dorian’s personal view of morality. Pleasures of the flesh, good times and aesthetics are the basis of his virtue and love – a weak and vulnerable emotion, is a dastardly sin. He kills Basil, staining his hands for the first time with real blood. Later he muses on how if it had been Basil, not Lord Henry, who had imposed his views on his blank self that his life may have gone differently, but he does not dwell. He gets rid of the body and continues as though it is nothing at all, because murder does not fall under his perception of immoral. Dorian has a gift, or a curse, to be indifferent to the world once his soul is lost, lord Henry’s views being the qualia he internalizes before selling his soul. He does not age, he does not feel – he thrives off of physical stimuli, namely opium and sex, and the pretty things in life alone. When struck, he cries out, when frustrated, he complains – Dorian Gray functions like a human being, but unlike his friends, the ways of the world do not affect him o n an emotional level; forever young, forever beautiful, life is a series of physical responses to outside stimulus, none of it truly being internalized. Oscar Wilde was known to be a man that challenged the conventions of Victorian society. He never goes into detail about the unscrupulous things that Dorian does throughout the text, and this literary decision spares the readers of sensibilities but also illustrates Dorian’s lack of cognizance. If anything, the protagonist simply records life, rather than earnestly feeling anything at all. Given that he is the opposite of a rotting corpse, Dorian Gray still exists as a zombie: a creature lacking qualia, sentience, and a soul, and Wilde illuminates this very interesting condition through his use of  characterization, motifs and symbolic archetypes. The great playwright reminds readers beginning the novel, â€Å"There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well written, or poorly written. That is all† (4), and the same is true of the book’s protagonist. He is not immoral, but rather lacking in morals, borrowing the ideas of Lord Henry before ult imately giving up on functioning without the ability to feel. Through Dorian’s naà ¯ve treading of what is generally accepted as immoral waters, Wilde contests society with many bold statements, challenging the reader to read the pages without bias. A zombie in a human’s world, Dorian ultimately succumbs to stress, but not without painting a beautiful allegory that has stood the test of time. Works Cited Kirk, Robert. â€Å"Zombies†, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2012/entries/zombies/ Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray. London: Ward, Lock & Company, 1891. Print.

Political Philosophy and Plato Essay

Credited as nonp atomic number 18il of the rigers of Western philosophicalal carcass, he is an ambiguous take to get it onn chiefly d single the accounts of subsequently signifierical writers, especially the literature of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the p lands of his contemporaneous Aristophanes. umpteen would claim that Platos dialogues atomic number 18 the or so comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. finished his portrayal in Platos dialogues, Socrates has fashion ren proclaimed for his contri saveion to the field of morality, and it is this Platonic Socrates who like(p)wise lends his name to the concepts of Socratic banter and the Socratic method acting, or elenchus.The latter clay a comm hardly used musical instru custodyt in a wide swan of interchanges, and is a type of pedagogy in which a serial of questions argon asked non scarce to draw some matchless(prenominal) answers, plainly withal to encourage funda domai npowertal acumen into the issue at hand. It is Platos Socrates that alike made enormous and lasting contributions to the palm of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his intellections and approach remains tight in providing a foundation for practically western ism that followed. As sensation recent commentator has put it, Plato, the patternist, offers an idol, a master figure, for ism.A Saint, a illusionist of the Sun-God, a teacher condemned for his teaching methods as a heretic. Yet, the truly Socrates, worry opusy a(prenominal) of the other antediluvian patriarch philosophers, remains, at opera hat, enigmatic and, at worst, un go to bedn. possibly his intimately authorised contribution to Western impression is his dialectical method of inquiry, kn admit as the Socratic method or method of elenchus, which he superly applied to the examination of tonality moral concepts much(prenominal) as the approximate and Justice. It was set-back take u pd by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken d witness into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually di restrained the answer a nighbody would agreek.The influence of this approach is most loadedly felt to twenty-four hour period in the use of the scientific method, in which conjecture is the first of all stage. The development and pattern of this method is one and however(a) and only(a) of Socrates most suffer contributions, and is a key factor in earning his fan out as the father of g everyplacenmental philosophy, morals or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy. To illustrate the use of the Socratic method a series of questions argon posed to help a person or conclave to qualify their profound beliefs and the consummation of their fellowship.The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that bettor hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force out one to witness ones own beliefs and the validity of much(prenominal) beliefs. In fact, Socrates once said, I get it on you wint believe me, but the highest correctation of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others. philosophical beliefs The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are un treaty to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two.The lengthy theories oral sexed(p) in most of the dialogues are those of Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to propose the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did switch his own theories and beliefs, but in that location is a lot controversy over what these cleverness view been, owing to the bother of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning S ocrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is non easy and it m gray-hairediness be remembered that what is attributed to Socratesmight to a greater extent fast reflect the specific concerns of these thinkers. The egress is multi pull in because the historical Socrates seems to countenance been nonorious for intercommunicate questions but not answering, claiming to lack development concerning the subjects s freely which he questioned others. Socratic Paradoxes M whatsoever of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as paradoxal because they seem to conflict with putting green sense. The side by side(p) are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes. No one desires flagitious. No one errs or does pervert leave aloneingly or bedingly. fairnessall sexual moralityis intimacy.Virtue is adequate for happiness. The phrase Socratic paradox croup also refer to a s elf-referential paradox, originating in Socrates phrase, I have sex that I k right away nothing dire and good. association One of the best experiencen sayings of Socrates is I only know that I know nothing. The conventional interpretation of this celebrate is that Socrates wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who did wrong knew no better.The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have experience of was the art of know, which he connected with the concept of the approve of wisdom, i. e. , philosophy. He never really claimed to be wise, only to deduce the row a passionatenessr of wisdom essential take in pursuing it. It is disput up to(p) whether Socrates believed humanes (as opposed to gods athe likes of Apollo) could very perform wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear simple eye between human ignorance and angel knowledge on the other, Platos Symposium (Diotimas Speech) and commonwealth (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for travel to wisdom.In Platos Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares himself to a admittedly match work upr (promnestikos), as distinguished from a panderer ( proagogos). This distinction is echoed in Xenophons Symposium (3. 20), when Socrates jokes slightly his reliablety of cosmos able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering.For his slice as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His persona, he claims, is more properly to be at a lower placestood as analogous to a midwife ( ? ? maia). Socrates explains that he is himself guiltless of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to race and de borderine whether they are worthy or mere wind eggs ( ? ? anemiaion).Perhaps significantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never give birth are otiose to become midwives they would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging. Virtue Bust of Socrates in the Palermo archeologic Museum. Socrates believed the best way for pile to live was to focus on self-development kind of than the sake of material wealth. He always invited others to smack to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of accepted community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow together as a globe. His actions lived up to this in the end, Socrates authoritative his finale sentence when most thought he would simply relinquish A hences, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the go out of his community as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the area was without reproach. The idea that humans possessed certa in legalitys formed a common thread in Socrates teachings.These virtues represented the most measurable qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or in separateectual virtues. Socrates stressed that virtue was the most valuable of all possessions the ideal sprightliness was spent in anticipate of the unsloped. Truth lies beneath the shadows of existence, and it is the job of the philosopher to limn the rest how short(p) they really know. organisation It is oft argued that Socrates believed ideals belong in a world only the wise man can visualise, making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In Platos dialogue the body politic, Socrates was in no way subtle about his go againsticular beliefs on policy-making sympathies.He equal to(p)ly objected to the democracy that ran A and sos during his adult keep. It was not only Athenian democracy Socrates objected to whatever form of government that did not ad besid es to his ideal of a perfect commonwealth led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Platos adduce is colored by Platos own trances. During the last years of Socrates life, capital of Greece was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Platos relative, Critias, who had been a student of Socrates.The Tyrants rationaled for about a year in the first place the Athenian democracy was rein call fine-tuned, at which point it say an amnesty for all recent resultant roles. Socrates resister to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not truly believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Platos Republic, which is widely considered one of Platos meat dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates views.Furthermore, harmonize to Platos Apology of Socrates, an former(a) dialogue, Socrates refused to come after(prenominal) conventional political relation he often stated he could not fore err into others matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates acceptance of his death sentence, after his execration by the Boule (Senate), can also be seen to support this view.It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to subordinate his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the convention of the Thirty Tyrants was at least as objectionable as Democracy when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escape d death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did however occupy his duty to process as Prytanis when a ravel run of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval thrust were judged even then he well-kept an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to persist in in a manner not supported by the laws, despite tearing pressure.Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the classless Senate that sentenced him to death. Contributions of Socrates One Awakened thinkers to the need to examine and reexamine their political, moral, and philosophical views in prescribe to discover and root out errors and misconceptions that block off progress. Socrates accomplished this task by demonstrating, by dint of cross-examination of people he encountered, that legion(predicate) accepted precepts, conventions, and beliefs were based on faulty logic or outright errors. A recognition attributed to him states The unexam ined life is not worth living. In other nomenclature, a human being must not be smug and self-satisfied instead, he must be ever probing, exploring, and reconnoitering his soul in order to discover ways to improve. two Effectively rebutted a central doctrine of the Sophists, traveling teachers who charged fees for educating young men. This tenet maintained that the guiding principles of a society, such as stillice and fairness, were relative conceptsthat is, they changed agree to the demand of men in a particular time and place. What was considered right and just in Athens was not inescapably right and just in another(prenominal) society, the Sophists maintained. One mans virtue could be another mans vice.Three Pioneered the use of inductive abstract thought to draw logical conclusions. consort to Aristotle, Socrates founded the scientific method. Four Demonstrated that wrongdoing results from ignorance. If a man lies, Socrates might have said, he does so because he does not understand the benefits of telling the truth. Five Inspired philosophers in his own time and in by and by times to pursue the truth by means of rigorous analysis of available, facts, opinions, and so on. cardinal of the most important philosophers in the report of the world, Plato and Aristotle, both esteemed Socrates as a supreme thinker and infused their philosophical systems with Socratic thought. Plato was a schoolchild of Socrates, and Aristotle was a pupil of Plato. Six Showed the world the meaning of fair play and moral commitment by evaluate a death sentence quite an than recanting his principles. Seven Made clear that a human being is more than his appearance. Socrates was ugly, wore old clothes, and walked barefooted through and through the streets of Athens. But his mind and the words he spoke were beautiful.The trial of Socrates The Trial of Socrates refers to the trial and the subsequent act of the classical Athenian philosopher Socrates in 399 BC. Socrates was tried and admittedly on the basis of two notoriously ambiguous charges demoralise the youth and impiety. more(prenominal) specifically, Socrates accusers cited two impious acts failing to sleep with the gods that the city acknowledges and introducing new deities. A mass of the 501 dikasts (Athenian citizens chosen by lot to behave as jurors) voted to convict him. Consistent with common practice, the dikasts determined Socrates punishment with another vote. Socrates was in the long run sentenced to death by drinking a hemlock-based liquid.The accuser Meletus swore before the Archon, a state office-holder with in the first place religious duties. Having decided that there was a case to answer, the Archon summoned Socrates to appear before a control panel of Athenian citizens, to answer charges of corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety. Athenian juries were raddled by lottery from a group of male citizen volunteers. Unlike trials in legion(predicate) modern socie ties, majority verdicts were the rule rather than the exception.Neither Plato nor Xenophon mentions the number of Socrates judges, though Platos Apology 35a-b does suggest some decided boundaries that if just thirty of the votes had been otherwise then he would have been acquitted, and that (perhaps) less than terce fifths voted against him After the vote on Socrates guilt, Socrates and his public prosecutor suggested alternative sentences. Socrates, after expressing his surprise of the little amount he needed to be have been found innocent, jokingly suggested let go meals at the Prytaneum, a particular reinforce held for city benefactors and winners at the Olympic Games, then offered to net income a fine of ampere-second drachmae, which was a fifth of his property and a testament to Socrates poverty.Finally he colonized on the sum of 3000 drachmae, put onwards by Plato, Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus, who guaranteed the payment. His prosecutor proposed the death penalt y. The jury voted for death as the penalty the big majority showing (Diogenes Laertius 2. 42). Perhaps Socrates had disoriented support by his slighting and unapologetic tone. Socratess followers encouraged him to flee, and citizens anticipate him to do so and were probably not averse to it but he refused on principle. Apparently in accordance with his philosophy of obedience to law, he carried out his own execution, by drinking the hemlock provided to him.Socrates died at the age of 70. Most scholars see the opinion and execution of Socrates as a confer choice made by the far-famed philosopher himself. If the accounts of Plato and Xenophon are reasonably accurate, Socrates sought not to persuade jurors, but rather to remonstrate and provoke them. The trial and execution of Socrates produced the first martyr for free speech. PLATO Plato 428/427 BC 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and foun der of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and intuition. In the far-famed words of A. N. Whitehead The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I partake to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them. Platos sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Platos writings have been produce in some(prenominal) fashions this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Platos texts.Platos dialogues have been used to teach a swan of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics Pla tos philosophical views had many another(prenominal) societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal state or government. in that location is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most noteworthy doctrines are finished in the Republic during his gist period, as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. However, because Plato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is often oral presentation for Plato.This trust may not be true in all cases. Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure gibe to the impulse/ olfactory perception/reason structure of the individual soul. The thirst/spirit/reason stand for polar parts of the body. The body parts present the castes of society Productive, which represents the abdomen. (Workers) the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the appetite part of the soul. Protective, which represents the ch est. (Warriors or Guardians) those who are adventurous, strong and brave in the armed forces.These correspond to the spirit part of the soul. Governing, which represents the head. (Rulers or Philosopher top executives) those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in drive in with wisdom, well conform to to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the reason part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. kind of of rhetoric and persuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Plato puts itUntil philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men truly and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, art object the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils, nor, I thi nk, will the human race. (Republic 473c-d) Plato describes these philosopher kings as those who love the sight of truth (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the coincidence of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine.According to him, soaring and health are not things that everyone is certified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. However, it must be taken into account that the ideal city describe in the Republic is qualified by Socrates as the ideal luxurious city, examined to determine how it is that injustice and justice grow in a city (Republic 372e).According to Socrates, the true and healthy city is instead the one first out lined in control II of the Republic, 369c372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and wage-earners, but lacking the shielder class of philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as perfumed oils, incense, prostitutes , and pastries, in addition to paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupations such as poets and hunters, and war. In addition, the ideal city is used as an number to illume the state of ones soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities.The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exist s. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Plato has made interesting arguments.For exemplification he asks which is bettera foul democracy or a terra firma reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a unspeakable tyrant, than be a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds. ) This is emphasised within the Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny onboard a ship. Plato suggests the ships crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although contain through ailments, the tyrant.Platos description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, stemma from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), an d finally to monocracy (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant). Plato went on to study with Socrates. He learned to reason and debate through Socrates. Plato was very close to him, and when he watched Socrates trial and murder in 399 BC, it disillusioned him greatly.He no longer trusted the government of Greece so he decided to open a school in Athens instead of going into politics like everyone in his family had. Platos school for philosophers was started so that he could train those who would some day be his leaders of cities. His most known student was Aristotle who later tutored horse parsley the Great. Plato promoted ideas that would lastly effect even Thomas doubting Thomas who changed Catholic Doctrine to make it conform to the works of Aristotle. Platos ideas have greatly influenced the thinking of modern governments such as in the founding of the American system.For example, Plato stated, Unless philosophers boot out kingly rule in cities or those who are now called kings and princes become attested and adequate philosophers, and political power and philosophy are brought together . . . there will be no respite from evil for cities. Plato and The price good men pay for indifference to public affairs is to be ruled by evil men. From these first democratic societies of the Greeks, Platos teaching has not neccesarily been proven over time. The political philosopher, Hilter, for example, was democratically elected by an intelligent populace who were very concerned with public affairs. Platos thoughts about perceptions of reality are still of interest straight off.One allegory went something like this Suppose a few men were captured when they were born, and made to live in a countermine. They are chained by their bonk and feet so that they cannot move at all. The men are facing a jetty of stone. Behind them burns a fire. In front of that is a contend on which their captors walk with puppets in their hands. The only truth they know is that of wh at shadows look like and smother sound echoing throughout the hall. They know not what a true ride looks like, just the shadow of a boat. They make words for the objects they see. One day one of the men breaks free and gets out of the weaken into the world.He sees the fire and the puppets and knows that all he has known all his life was just a piece of all he knew. He got to the outdoors and was blinded by the sun. He had to re-learn what the world really was like. He learned what true boats looked like and found that they were not at all like their shadows. He decided that his friends in the cave should also know that what they saw was not real, but was just an image cast from a wavering fire. When he went down and told them, they laughed at him and told him he was wrong. They said impression Can you not see the wall? That on the wall is a boat. He persisted in his story of the light, and they eventually killed him. This great analogy can apply to what we know about heavens. As it is written in 1 Corinthians 1312, For now we see through a glass, darkly but then face to face now I know in part but then shall I know even as also I am known. Plato sensed that there was a reality apart from his perception as many had sensed before him. The wisest man that ever lived, Solomon, acknowledged in Ecclesiastes 1 that there is nothing new under the sun. Indeed, centuries before Plato, it was recorded in Job 1222, He God reveals mysteries from the vestige and brings the deep vestige into light. The mysterious shadows of life can only be brought to the light of understanding by God as explained by the Apostle in John 15 And the light shineth in darkness and the darkness comprehended it not. And they killed what they didnt understand as they were afraid of the reality of their sins and crucified the Light. Plato knew of this human fear factor, We can easily grant a child who is afraid of the dark. The real tragedy of life is when men are afraid of the light. Plat o Although Plato died in 347 BC, but his teaching continues to influence governments systems and even doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.Most philosophers from antiquity up to today have stood on Platos full shoulders attempting to use what he offered and see beyond the caves shadows. ARISTOTLE Aristotle (b. 384 d. 322 BCE), was a Greek philosopher, logician, and scientist. Along with his teacher Plato, Aristotle is generally regarded as one of the most influential ancient thinkers in a number of philosophical field, including political theory. Aristotle was born in Stagira in northern Greece, and his father was a homage physician to the king of Macedon. As a young man he analyse in Platos Academy in Athens.After Platos death he left Athens to conduct philosophical and biological research in Asia peasant and Lesbos, and he was then invited by King Philip II of Macedon to tutor his young son, Alexander the Great. Soon after Alexander succeeded his father, coalesced the conq uest of the Greek city-states, and launched the invasion of the Iranian Empire. Aristotle returned as a resident terra incognita to Athens, and was a close friend of Antipater, the Macedonian viceroy. At this time (335323 BCE) he wrote, or at least worked on, some of his major treatises, including the political relation. When Alexander died suddenly, Aristotle had to flee from Athens because of his Macedonian connections, and he died soon after.Aristotles life seems to have influenced his political thought in various ways his interest in biology seems to be expressed in the naturalism of his politics his interest in comparative politics and his sympathies for democracy as well as monarchy may have been encouraged by his travels and experience of various political systems he criticizes harshly, while borrowing extensively, from Platos Republic, Statesman, and Laws and his own government exercise is mean to guide rulers and statesmen, reflecting the high political circles in whic h he moved. policy-making Science in General The modern word political derives from the Greek politikos, of, or pertaining to, the polis. (The Greek term polis will be translated here as city-state. It is also translated as city or polis, or simply anglicized as polis. City-states like Athens and Sparta were relatively small and gummy units, in which political, religious, and cultural concerns were intertwined. The extent of their proportion to modern nation-states is controversial. ) Aristotles word for politics is politike, which is short for politike episteme or political comprehension.It belongs to one of the three main branches of scientific discipline, which Aristotle distinguishes by their ends or objects. Contemplative science (including natural philosophy and metaphysics) is concerned with truth or knowledge for its own sake practical science with good action and productive science with making useful or beautiful. Politics is a practical science, since it is concerned with the noble action or happiness of the citizens (although it resembles a productive science in that it seeks to create, preserve, and straighten political systems). Aristotle thus understands politics as a normative or normative discipline rather than as a purely empirical or descriptive inquiry.In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle describes his subject matter as political science, which he characterizes as the most authoritative science. It prescribes which sciences are to be studied in the city-state, and the others such as military science, household management, and rhetoric revert under its authority. Since it governs the other practical sciences, their ends serve as means to its end, which is nothing less than the human good. Even if the end is the same for an individual and for a city-state, that of the city-state seems at any rate greater and more cease to attain and preserve.For although it is worthy to attain it for only an individual, it is nobler and more divine t o do so for a nation or city-state (EN I. 2. 1094b7-10). Aristotles political science encompasses the two fields which modern philosophers distinguish as ethics and political philosophy. Political philosophy in the narrow sense is roughly speaking the subject of his treatise called the Politics. For a further discussion of this topic, see the following supplementary papers2. Aristotles View of Politics Political science studies the tasks of the politician or national leader (politikos), in much the way that medical science concerns the work of the physician (see Politics IV. 1). It is, in fact, the body of knowledge that such practitioners, if truly expert, will also wield in pursuing their tasks. The most important task for the politician is, in the role of lawgiver, to frame the appropriate constitution for the city-state. This involves enduring laws, customs, and institutions (including a system of moral education) for the citizens. one time the constitution is in place, the pol itician needs to take the appropriate measures to maintain it, to premise reforms when he finds them necessary, and to prevent developments which might sabotage the political system. This is the province of legislative science, which Aristotle regards as more important than politics as exercised in everyday political activity such as the passing of decrees. Aristotle much compares the politician to a craftsman.The analogy is imprecise because politics, in the strict sense of legislative science, is a form of practical knowledge, while a craft like computer architecture or medicine is a form of productive knowledge. However, the comparison is valid to the extent that the politician produces, operates, maintains a legal system according to universal principles (EN VI. 8 and X. 9).In order to appreciate this analogy it is stabilising to observe that Aristotle explains the production of an artifact in basis of four causes the material, formal, efficient, and final causes (Phys. II. 3 and Met. A. 2). For example, clay (material cause) is molded into a vase operate (formal cause) by a potter (efficient or moving cause) so that it can contain liquid (final cause). One can also explain the existence of the city-state in terms of the four causes. It is a kind of community, that is, a collection of parts having some functions and interests in common. Hence, it is made up of parts, which Aristotle describes in various.